The history of organic nitrates as medicaments in clinical medicine is quite curious. The fi rst preparation of this group - the Glyceryl trinitrate (Nitroglycerin) was synthesized by Sombrero in 1847 (5). Two years later (in 1849) Nitroglycerin was fi rst applied in medical practice by the American homeopath Constantin Hering as a remedy for headaches. In the defense of his therapeutic thesis Hering uses as a guide the principle that "like cures like" and that nitrate induced headaches could eliminate headaches due to different reasons.
Adams, J. Hemodynamic effects of nitroglycerin and long - acting nitrates. Am Heart J 1985, 110, 216.
Banasiak, W. Pharmacoterapy in patients with stable coronary disease treated on an outpatient basis in Poland. Results of the multicentre RECENT study. Kardiol Pol., 2008, 66, 642-649.
Bassan, M. M. The daylong pattern of the antianginal effect of long-times daily administred isosorbide dinitrate. JACC 1990, 16, 4, 936-940.
Behrendt, D., Ganz, P. Endothelial function: from vascular biology to clinical applications. Am J Cardiol 2002, 90, suppl I, 40L- 48L.
Berlin, R. Historical aspects of nitrate therapy. Drugs 1987, 33, Suppl 4, 1-4.
Bredthardt, T. et al. Impact of a high-dose nitrate strategy on cardiac strass in acute heart failure. A pilot study. J Intern Med 2010, 267, 322-330.
Brown, B. G. et al. The mechanisms of nitroglycerin action: Stenosis vasodilatation as a major component of the drug response. Circulation 1981, 64, 1, 1089-1097.
Brunton, L. On the use of nitrite amyl in angina pectoris. Lancet 1867, 2, 97-98.
Bungaard, K.. et al. Effect of nitroglycerin patients with increased pulmonary vascular resistance undergoing transplantation. Scand Cardiovasc J 1997, 31, 6, 339-342.
Chen, Z., Zhang, J., Stamler, S. Identifi cation of the enzymatic mechanism of nitroglycerin bioactivation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2002, 99, 8306-8311.
Cohn, J. N. et al. Effect of vasodilatator therapy on mortality in chronic congestive heart failure results of a Veterans Administration Cooperative Study (V-HeFT). N. Eng J Med 1986, 314, 1547-1552.
Cotter, G. et al. Randomized trial of high-dose isosorbide dinitrate plus low-dose furosemide versus high-dose furosemide plus low-dose isosorbide dinitrate in severe pulmonary edema. Lancet 1998, 315, 389-393.
Daiber, A, et al. Nitrate tolerance as a model of vascular dysfunction: roles for mitochondridl aldehyde dehydrogenase and mitochondrial oxidative stress. Pharmacol Rep 2009, 61, 1, 33-48.
Daiber, A. et al. The oxidative stress concept of nitrate tolerance and the antioxidant properties of hydralazine. Am J Cardiol 2005, 96, 7B, 25i-36i.
Duchier, J., Iannascoli, F., Safar, M. Antihypertensive effect of Sustained-release isosorbide dinitrate for isoled systolic Systemic hypertension in the elderly. Am J Cardiol 1987, 60, 99-102.
Dupuis, J. et al. Tolerance to intravenous nitroglycerin in patients with congestive heart failure role of increased intravascular volume neurohormonal activation and lack of prevention with N-acetylcysteine. JACC 1990, 16, 4, 923-31.
Evans, W., Hoyle, C. The comparative value of drugs used in the continuous treatment of angina pectoris. Quart J of Med 1933, 7, 311-338.
Fanarow, G. C. ADHERE Scientifi c Advisory Committee. The Acute Decompensated Heart Failure National Registry (ADHERE). Opportunities to improve care patients hospitalized with acute decompensated heart failure. Rev Cardiovasc Med 2003, 4, Suppl.7, S21-S30.
Flavanhan, N. A., Vanhoutte, P. M. Endothelial cell signaling and endothelial dysfunction. Am. J. Hypertens. 1995, 8, 5, Pt. 2, 28S-41S.
Fox, K. et al. Guidelines on the management of stabile angina pectoris. Eur Heart J 2006, 27, 1341-1381.
Gerzanich, V. et al. Alternative splicing of cGMPdependent protein kinase I in angiotensin-hypertention; novel mechanism for nitrate tolerance in vascular smooth muscle. Circ. Res. 2003, 41, 159-168.
Goldstein, R. E. et al. Intraoperative coronary collateral function in patients with coronary occlusive disease. Nitroglycerin responsiveness and angiographic correlations. Circulation 1974, 49, 2, 298-308.
Gori, T., Parker, J. D. Nitrate tolerance a unifying hypothesis. Circulation 2002, 106, 2510-2513.
Gori, T., Parker, J. D. The puzzle of nitrate tolerance, pieces smaller than we thought? Circulation 2002, 106, 2404-2408.
Hamm, C., Bassand, J., Agewall, S. et al. ESC Guidelines for the management of acute coronary syndromes in patients presenting without persistent ST-elevation. Eur Heart J 2011, 32, 2999-3054.
Heart Failure Society of America, Lindenfeld, J. et al. HFSA 2010 Comprehensive Heart Failure Practice Guideline. J. Card. Fail., 2010, 16, e1-e194.
Jakschik, B., Needleman, P. Sulfhydryl reactivity of organic nitrates: biochemical basis for inhibition of glyceraldehydes- P dehydrogenase and monoamine oxidase. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1973, 53, 539-544.
Jessup, M. et al. 2009 focused update; ACCF/AHA Gudelines for the diagnosis and manangment of heart failure inadults: Areport of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Tesk Force on Practice Gudelines: Developed in collaboration with the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. Circulation 2009, 119, 1977-2016.
Jonson, J. B., Fairlery, D., Carter, C. Effects sublingual nitroglycerin on pulmonary arterial pressure in patients with left ventricular failure. Ann Intern Med 1959, 50, 34-42.
Jugdutt, B. I. Intravenous nitroglycerin unloading in acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 1991, 68, 52D- 63D.
Kamajda, M. et al. Study Group on Diagnosis of the Working Group on Heart Failure of the European Sosiety of Cardiology. Survey on the qualityof care among patients with heart failure in Europe. Part 2 Tretment. Eur Heart J 2003, 24, 464-474.
Knot, H. J. Nitrate tolerance in hypertention; new insight into a centuryold problem. Circ Res 2003, 93, 799- 801.
Kosmicki, M., H. Szwed, Z. Sadowski. Anti-ischemic respose to sublingval nitroglycerin during oral administration of isosorbide in patients with stable angina pectoris; when does cross-tolerance oeeur ? Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 2004, 18, 1, 47-55.
Lacoste, L. L. et al. Antithrombotic properties of transdermal nitroglycerin in stabile angina pectoris. Am J Cardiol 1994, 73, 1058-1062.
Levy, J. H., Nussmeier, N. A. Management of Systemic and Pulmonary Hypertension. Tex Heart Inst J 2005, 32, 4, 467-471.
McMurray, J. et al. ESC guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acut and chronic heart failure 2012: The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Acute and Chronic Heart Failure 2012 of the European Society of Cardiology. Developed in collaboration with the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC. Eur. Heart J. 2012, 10, 1093
Moncada, S., Higgs, A. The L-arginin-nitric oxide patway. N Eng J Med 1993, 329, 27, 2002-2012.
Mots, H., S. Glasser. Intermitent transdermal nitroglycerin therapy in thetreatment of chronic stable angina. JACC 1989, 13, 786-795.
Mullens, W. et al. Usefulness of isosorbide dinitrate and hydralazine as add-on therapy in patients discharged for avidenced decompensated heart failure. Am J Cardiol 2009, 103, 1113-1119.
Munzel, T.et al. Evidence for enhanced vascular superoxide anion producton in nitrate tolerance. A novel mechanism underlyng tolerance and cross-tolerance. J. Clin. Invest. 1995, 95, 187-194
Murrell, W. Nitro-glycerine as a remedy for angina pectoris. Lancet 1879, 1, 80-81.
O`Rourke, S. T. Nitro vasodilatators: pharmacology and use in the treatment of myocardial ischemia. Am J Farm Educ 2002, 66, 177-180.
Palevsky, H. I., Fishman, A. P. Vascular therapy for primary pulmonary hypertension. Annu Rev Med 1985. 36, 563-578.
Parker, J. D. et al. Intermittent nitroglycerin terapy in angina pectoris; clinically effective without tolerance rebound. Circulation 1995, 91, 5, 1368-1371
Parker, J. et al. Effect of intervals between doses on the development of tolerance to isosorbide dinitrate. N Engl J Med 1987, 316, 1440-1444.
Parker, J. O. Eccentric dosing with isosorbide-5-mononitrate in angina pectoris. Am J Cardiol 1993, 72, 12, 871-876.
Parker, J. A. Organic nitrates: new formulations and their clinical advantages. Am J Cardiol 1996, 77 (13), 38C-40C.
Parker, J. D. Nitrate tolerance, oxidative stresse, and mitochondrial function on organic nitrates. J Clin Invest 2004, 113, 3, 352-354.
Parker,J.D., Parker, J.O. Nitrates Therapy for Stable Angina Pectoris. N Engl J Med 1998, 338, 520-531. 50. Penkov, N. Endothelial function and dysfunction. Heart - Lung (Varna). 2005, 11, 2, 3 - 22.
Publication Committee for the VMAC (Vasodilatation in the Management of Acute CHF) investigators. Intravenous nesiritide vs nitroglycerin for treatment of decompensated congestive heart failure. A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 202, 287, 1531-1540.
Safar, M. E. Antihypertensive effects on nitrates in chronic human hypertension. J Appl Cardiol 1990, 5, 69- 80.
Safar, M. E. et al. Stiffness of carotid artery wall material and blood pressure in humans. Stroke 2000, 31, 782- 790.
Schiffrin, E. L. Oxidative stress nitric oxide syntase and superoxide dismutase: a matter of imbalance underlies endothelial dysfunction in the human coronary circulation. Hypertension 2008, 51, 31-32.
Schmieder, R., Raff, U. Hypertensive crisis. MMW Fortschr Med.2012, 154, 8, 56-57. 56. Schwemmer, M., Bassenge, E. New approaches to overco me tolerance to nitrates. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 2003, 17, 2, 159-173.
Sharon, A. et al. High-dose intervenous isosorbidedinitrate is safer and better than Bi-PAP ventilation combined with conventional treatment for severe pulmonary edema. JACC 2000, 36, 832-837. 58. Smulders, Y., Peters, M., Serne, E. Comment on summary of the updated Dutch dudelines for the management of hypertensive crisis. Neth J Med 2011, 69, 5, 248-255.
Steg, Ph. G., James, J. K., Ater, D. et al. ESC Guidelines for the management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with ST-segment elevation. Eur Heart J, 2012, 33, 2569-2619.
Stokes, G. S. et al. A Controlled study of the effects of isosorbide ;fnfnitrate on arterial blood pressure and pulse wave from in systolic hypertension. J Hypertens 1999, 17, 12, pt 1), 1767-1777.
Task Force for Diagnosis and Treatment of Acute and Chronic Heart Failure 2008 of European Sosiety of Cardiology, Dicktein, K.et al.; ESC Committee for Practice Gudelines, Vahanian, A. et al. ESC Gudelines for th diagnosis ant treatment of acute and chronic heart failure 2008. The task force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic failure 2008 of the European Society Cardiology. Developed in collaboration with the Heart Failure Association of the ESC (HFA) and endorsed by the European Society Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM). Eur Heart J 2008, 2388-2442.
Taylor, J. N. et al. Combination of isosorbide dinitrate and hydralazine in blacks with heart failure. N Engl J Med 2004, 351, 2049-2057.
Thadani, U., Rodgers, T. Side effects of using nitrates to treat angina. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2006, 5, 5, 667-677. 64. Thadani, U. Nitrate tolerance, rebound, and their clinical relevance in stable angina pectoris, unstable angina, and heart failure. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 1997, 10, 735- 742.
Vanhoutte, P. M. Endothelial function and dysfunction. Heart Metab 2004, 22, 1, 5-10.
Vanhoutte, P. M. Endothelial control of vasomotor function from health to corondry disease. Circ J 2003, 67, 7, 572-575.
Vanhoutte, P. M. The endothelium - modulator of vascular smooth-muscule tone. New Engl J Med 1988, 319, 8, 512-513.
Varon, J., Marik, P. E. Perioperative hypertension management. Vasc Health Risk Manag 2008, 4, 3, 615-627. 69. Vizzalardi, E. et al. When Should We Use Nitrates in Cngestive Heart Failure? Cardiovasc. Therapeutics 2013, 31, 1, 27-31.
Wei, J. et al. Nitrates for stable angina; A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Int J of Cardiol 2011, 146, 4-12.
Zuckebaun, B. S., George, P., Gladwin, M. T. Nitrate in pulmonaty arterial hypertension: therapeutic avenues in the setting of dysregulated arginine/nitric oxide synthase signaling. Cardiovasc Res 2011, 89,3, 542-552.
